ECG signal quality in intermittent long-term dry electrode recordings with controlled motion artifacts.

Wearable long-term monitoring applications are becoming more and more popular in both the consumer and the medical market. In wearable ECG monitoring, the data quality depends on the properties of the electrodes and on how they interface with the skin. Dry electrodes do not require any action from the user. They usually do not irritate the skin, and they provide sufficiently high-quality data for ECG monitoring purposes during low-intensity user activity. We investigated prospective motion artifact-resistant dry electrode materials for wearable ECG monitoring. The tested materials were (1) porous: conductive polymer, conductive silver fabric; and (2) solid: stainless steel, silver, and platinum. ECG was acquired from test subjects in a 10-min continuous settling test and in a 48-h intermittent long-term test. In the settling test, the electrodes were stationary, whereas both stationary and controlled motion artifact tests were included in the long-term test. The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) was used as the figure of merit to quantify the results. Skin-electrode interface impedance was measured to quantify its effect on the ECG, as well as to leverage the dry electrode ECG amplifier design. The SNR of all electrode types increased during the settling test. In the long-term test, the SNR was generally elevated further. The introduction of electrode movement reduced the SNR markedly. Solid electrodes had a higher SNR and lower skin-electrode impedance than porous electrodes. In the stationary testing, stainless steel showed the highest SNR, followed by platinum, silver, conductive polymer, and conductive fabric. In the movement testing, the order was platinum, stainless steel, silver, conductive polymer, and conductive fabric.

Investigating the possible effect of electrode support structure on motion artifact in wearable bioelectric signal monitoring.

BACKGROUND: With advances in technology and increasing demand, wearable biosignal monitoring is developing and new applications are emerging. One of the main challenges facing the widespread use of wearable monitoring systems is the motion artifact. The sources of the motion artifact lie in the skin-electrode interface. Reducing the motion and deformation at this interface should have positive effects on signal quality. In this study, we aim to investigate whether the structure supporting the electrode can be designed to reduce the motion artifact with the hypothesis that this can be achieved by stabilizing the skin deformations around the electrode. METHODS: We compare four textile electrodes with different support structure designs: a soft padding larger than the electrode area, a soft padding larger than the electrode area with a novel skin deformation restricting design, a soft padding the same size as the electrode area, and a rigid support the same size as the electrode. With five subjects and two electrode locations placed over different kinds of tissue at various mounting forces, we simultaneously measured the motion artifact, a motion affected ECG, and the real-time skin-electrode impedance during the application of controlled motion to the electrodes. RESULTS: The design of the electrode support structure has an effect on the generated motion artifact; good design with a skin stabilizing structure makes the electrodes physically more motion artifact resilient, directly affecting signal quality. Increasing the applied mounting force shows a positive effect up to 1,000 gr applied force. The properties of tissue under the electrode are an important factor in the generation of the motion artifact and the functioning of the electrodes. The relationship of motion artifact amplitude to the electrode movement magnitude is seen to be linear for smaller movements. For larger movements, the increase of motion generated a disproportionally larger artifact. The motion artifact and the induced impedance change were caused by the electrode motion and contained the same frequency components as the applied electrode motion pattern. CONCLUSION: We found that stabilizing the skin around the electrode using an electrode structure that manages to successfully distribute the force and movement to an area beyond the borders of the electrical contact area reduces the motion artifact when compared to structures that are the same size as the electrode area.

A motion artifact generation and assessment system for the rapid testing of surface biopotential electrodes.

Dry electrodes can reduce cost while increasing the usability and comfort of wearable monitoring systems. They are, however, susceptible to motion artifacts. The present electrode testing methods lack reliability and do not separate the factors that affect the motion artifact. In this paper, we introduce a first generation motion artifact generation and assessment system that generates the speed, amplitude, and pattern-wise programmable movement of the electrode. The system simultaneously measures electrode-skin impedance, the motion artifact, and one channel of an electrocardiogram that contains the motion artifact and monitors the mounting force applied to the electrode. We demonstrate the system by comparing the applied movement and the measured signals for electrode movements up to 6 mm and movement frequencies from 0.4 Hz to 4 Hz. Results show that the impedance change and surface potential are visually clearly related to the applied motion, with average correlations of 0.89 and 0.64, respectively. The applied force, electrode location, and electrode structure all affect the motion artifact. The setup enables the motion of the electrode to be accurately controlled. The system can be used as a precursor to the testing of integrated systems because it enables thorough, repeatable, and robust motion artifact studies. The system allows a deeper insight into motion artifacts and the interplay of the various factors that affect them.

Impedance spectroscopy of changes in skin-electrode impedance induced by motion.

BACKGROUND: The motion artifact is an ever-present challenge in the mobile monitoring of surface potentials. Skin-electrode impedance is investigated as an input parameter to detect the motion artifact and to reduce it using various methods. However, the impact of the used impedance measurement frequency on the relationship between measured impedance and the motion artifact and the relationship between the impedance and the motion is not well understood. METHODS: In this paper, for the first time, we present the simultaneous measurement of impedance at 8 current frequencies during the application of controlled motion to the electrode at monitored electrode mounting force. Three interwoven frequency groupings are used to obtain a spectrum of 24 frequencies between 25 Hz and 1 MHz for ten volunteers. Consequently, the surface potential and one channel of ECG are measured from the electrode subject to controlled motion. The signals are then analyzed in time and frequency domain. RESULTS: The results show that the different frequencies of impedance measurements do not reflect the motion in the same manner. The best correlation between impedance and the applied motion was seen at impedance current frequencies above 17 kHz. For resistance this relationship existed for frequencies above 11 kHz, Reactance did not show good time domain correlation, but had good frequency domain correlation at frequencies higher than 42 kHz. Overall, we found that the impedance signal correlated well with the applied motion; however impedance had lower correlation to actual motion artifact signal. CONCLUSION: Based on our results, we can conclude that the current frequency used for the impedance measurement has a great effect on the relationship of the measurement to the applied motion and its relationship with the resulting motion artifact. Therefore, when flat textile contact biopotential electrodes are used, frequencies higher than 17 kHz are best suited for impedance measurements intended for the estimation of electrode motion or motion artifact. For resistance, the best frequencies to use are higher than 11 kHz.

Effect of pressure and padding on motion artifact of textile electrodes.

BACKGROUND: With the aging population and rising healthcare costs, wearable monitoring is gaining importance. The motion artifact affecting dry electrodes is one of the main challenges preventing the widespread use of wearable monitoring systems. In this paper we investigate the motion artifact and ways of making a textile electrode more resilient against motion artifact. Our aim is to study the effects of the pressure exerted onto the electrode, and the effects of inserting padding between the applied pressure and the electrode. METHOD: We measure real time electrode-skin interface impedance, ECG from two channels, the motion artifact related surface potential, and exerted pressure during controlled motion by a measurement setup designed to estimate the relation of motion artifact to the signals. We use different foam padding materials with various mechanical properties and apply electrode pressures between 5 and 25 mmHg to understand their effect. A QRS and noise detection algorithm based on a modified Pan-Tompkins QRS detection algorithm estimates the electrode behaviour in respect to the motion artifact from two channels; one dominated by the motion artifact and one containing both the motion artifact and the ECG. This procedure enables us to quantify a given setup's susceptibility to the motion artifact. RESULTS: Pressure is found to strongly affect signal quality as is the use of padding. In general, the paddings reduce the motion artifact. However the shape and frequency components of the motion artifact vary for different paddings, and their material and physical properties. Electrode impedance at 100 kHz correlates in some cases with the motion artifact but it is not a good predictor of the motion artifact. CONCLUSION: From the results of this study, guidelines for improving electrode design regarding padding and pressure can be formulated as paddings are a necessary part of the system for reducing the motion artifact, and further, their effect maximises between 15 mmHg and 20 mmHg of exerted pressure. In addition, we present new methods for evaluating electrode sensitivity to motion, utilizing the detection of noise peaks that fall into the same frequency band as R-peaks.

System for ECG and heart rate monitoring during group training.

We present a system for measuring ECG signals simultaneously from multiple persons during a group training session. The system transmits the signals to a coordinating computer where heart rate and other parameters are calculated from the signals. The heart rate values can then be shown for example through a video projector on a large display along with individual information about the training intensity.